Water flows in an open rectangular channel at a depth of 3ft3 \mathrm{ft}3ft with a velocity of 12ft/sec12~\mathrm{ft} / \mathrm{sec}12ft/sec. doi:10.1007/s11069-016-2152-0, Artunduaga A, Jimenez G (1997) Third version of the hazard map of Galeras Volcano, Colombia. 2013), probability of a specific size of ballistics reaching a given area (Artunduaga and Jimenez 1997), or probability of a specific consequence occurring e.g. 2014). As the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption showed, volcanoes pose significant threats to U.S. communities. An English version of the map is available in addition to the original in Japanese. travel distance, density of impacts in an area, size and or energy of expected ballistics in given scenarios). The vast majority of people are guided up the volcano by local guides to watch the eruptions occur, with a main viewing area only 150m from the craters inner rim. However, a scenario with fatalities on the scale seen at Ontake is unlikely from Sakurajima due to the 2km restriction zone. Ballistic projectiles. 2). http://www.nhk.or.jp/d-navi/link/ontake2014-en/index.html. Hljc`s grk kakctko gs sjleo. Continuous Vulcanian eruptions have occurred since 2009 from the andesitic composite cone (Japan Meteorological Agency 2013b). In: Bobrowsky PT (ed) Encyclopedia of natural hazards. Tephra falls do pose a risk to lives; however, pyroclastic flows are the chief cause . The objectives of such meetings are to update communities on the evolving eruptive hazards, build relationships and trust, reduce any miscommunication or misinformation passed along, and to make sure the information being presented is what the end-members need (Barclay et al. In: Bobrowsky PT (ed) Encyclopedia of natural hazards. Aircraft that fly in the dense network of aviation routes across the Cascade Range carry nearly 200,000 people daily over Cascade airspacean amount equivalent to the population of the City of Spokane, Washington. deposits leads to increased runoff, accelerated erosion, stream-channel http://www.unisdr.org/eng/terminology/terminology-2009-eng.html. 2016). 2), whether volcanoes are frequently visited or inhabited, and the availability of resources. 2010). from one vent), rather than the entire background risk from that volcano (e.g. hljc`s gio hjfhs cgi bgvk vkljceteks jn 4;-8== f/s. 2009). Bull Volc 70(5):605621, Houghton BF, Swanson DA, Carey RJ, Rausch J, Sutton AJ (2011) Pigeonholing pyroclasts: Insights from the 19 March 2008 explosive eruption of Kilauea volcano. b Signs advising area of increased hazard including a track-specific AVHZ hazard map. 2013; Fitzgerald et al. We identify the following critical issues for contemporary and future communication of volcanic ballistic risk, based on our review of literature and analysis of the four case study volcanoes. Ash. Following the August event, some of the local population evacuated for the night and the TAC was closed for two months due to the risk of further eruption. Low permeability of fine ash In many instances, it may not be possible or warranted to complete all of the steps involved in an ideal risk assessment. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Accessed 18 Apr 2016, Thompson MA, Lindsay JM, Gaillard JC (2015) The influence of probabilistic volcanic hazard map properties on hazard communication. Many visitors to the TAC still assume that they do not need to be concerned because they expect the area to be closed if it is unsafe or to be advised it was unsafe (Keys 2015). Ontake. 2007; Leonard et al. 2014b), with seismicity reoccurring only ~5min before the event (Jolly et al. Ash can smother vegetation, destroy moving parts in motors and engines (especially in aircraft), and scratch surfaces. Omayra Sanchez - 13 y/o - Armero town - Nevado del Ruiz in Columbia - 60 hrs submerged in water. Ruapehu, New Zealand (Leonard et al. Calculate the two possible depths of flow after the drop. Click to read further detail. Ballistic projectiles. Fatalities from ballistics could occur at all of the case study volcanoes. Tephra falls. 2014). It also endangers aircraft, which may completely lose engine power if they fly through ash clouds. The Shinano Mainichi Shimbun Press, Nagano (in Japanese), Siegrist M, Cvetkovich G (2000) Perception of hazards: the role of social trust and knowledge. _ypks jn _kpbrg Nglls gio Hgllestec ]rjakctelks. www.tongariro.org.nz/tongarirojournals. a. from lack of oxygen. 5a). Accessed Apr 2015, Wardman J, Sword-Daniels V, Stewart C, Wilson T (2012) Impact assessment of the May 2010 eruption of Pacaya volcano, Guatemala. Decade Volcanoes - Bigger pumice fragments are lapilli mixed with finer ash, Pele's Tears ; Ontake, Japan the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention in Japan (NIED, though now renamed to National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience) completed a report recommending: regulations on development and land-use, building of ballistic shelters and evacuation facilities, and the development of emergency plans, as an eruption in the summer hiking season would likely result in human casualties (NIED 1980). (>) Gerhjrik gsb cgi rkouck vesehelety tj zkrj gio turi ogy tj iedbt hy hljc`eid suiledbt. Many more people have been injured as a result of ballistic impacts, frequently suffering from blunt force trauma (broken bones), lacerations, burns, abrasions and bruising (Blong 1984; Baxter and Gresham 1997). All of the volcanoes studied are capable of sustaining injuries and fatalities from ballistics. ff ei oegfktkr0 Hjfhs nrjf nrksb fgdfg tbgt wbki kakctko, tbky gssufk, vgrejus sbgpks upji cjjleid. Though work has been completed on ballistic hazard (e.g., mapping deposits, better understanding eruption dynamics and the factors that influence ballistic distribution, recording particle velocities, the creation and use of ballistic trajectory models, and the production of hazard maps either focussed solely on ballistics or as an aspect of a multi-hazard map), very little has been focussed on the management of ballistic risk, leaving a large knowledge gap and a need for research in this area. Secondly, signs instructing people on the distance and direction to the nearest eruption safe house and evacuation port have been posted around the volcano. The Alert Level was not raised following increased seismicity beginning 16days before the eruption. TheVolcanic Ash webpagesare intended to help people prepare and recover from volcanic ashfall. 2011; Gurioli et al. Ballistic communication methods used at volcanoes include hazard and risk assessments, hazard maps, volcano monitoring and research, real-time warning systems, volcanic alert levels; volcano warnings, alert bulletins and communication with agencies; response exercises, education materials, response plans, exclusion and evacuation zones, instructions and signage for what to do in the event of an eruption around the volcano, community engagement, educational materials, and land-use planning and infrastructure design. The 1979 eruption was preceded by earthquake swarms for a year and five months. Scoria, Classification of Lapilli-sized tephra fragments, Derived from plinian eruptions like Pinatubo, Products of Strombolian eruptions of basaltic to andesitic volcanoes like Taal, teardrop-shaped lapilli-sized fragments produced by rapid cooling of basaltic lava while still in the air, Can change rainfall or runoff relationships, Source of variability in predicting the size and thickness , anticipating how far and wide tephra deposits can go, An ash-laden eruption column can reach as high as _________ from the volcanic vent, Would depend on wind direction and speed which both can change with altitude, Occurs between the troposphere and the stratosphere (about 10 km above sea level). Recent eruptions of Ontake in 2014 and Kusatsu-Shirane in 2018 showed that un-reinforced, timber-framed buildings - those typically considered highly vulnerable to the dangerous penetration of ballistics - provided life-saving shelter from ballistic impact. Unrest was observed at the volcano up to three weeks before the eruption, initially in the form of increased seismicity and then increased magmatic gas content (Jolly et al. Earth, Planets Space 65(6):609621, Mainichi Shimbun 10/10/2014. 2014). Ashparticles further act as contaminates in water supplies, leading to damage at hydroelectric facilities, irrigation pumping stations, sewage-treatment facilities, and storm water systems. 2016). This leads to a limited understanding of the hazard and risk posed to the area. J Volcanol Geoth Res 77:325338, Becker JS, Saunders WSA, Robertson CM, Leonard GS, Johnston DM (2010) A synthesis of challenges and opportunitiesfor reducing volcanic risk throughland use planning in New Zealand. http://www.geotimes.org/apr04/feature_VPI.html. Funding for this study was provided by DeVoRA (Determining Volcanic Risk in Auckland) and a New Zealand Earthquake Commission (EQC) Biennial Grant (16/727). The effects of falls can be, however. Transparency builds trust and credibility. such eruptions from areas likely to be affected by pyroclastic The review suggests future improvements to the communication and management of ballistic hazard. This map was distributed to local citizens and posted around the volcano. Fallout deposits are usually well-sorted (e.g., they are made up of particles that are roughly the same size) and commonly may show layering or be bedded. How far the projectiles go from the vent partly depends on the, Chapter 5.4 : Tephra Falls and Basaltic Proje. village occupied by 1700 people. Alaska Scientific Investigations Report 2008-5159, Cronin SJ, Sharp DS (2002) Environmental impacts on health from continuous volcanic activity at Yasur (Tanna) and Ambrym, Vanuatu. 4). Prior to the eruption, Gifu and Nagano prefectures had separate commissions to manage volcanic activity from Mt. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Steinberg G, Lorenz V (1983) External ballistic of volcanic explosions. However, in many other eruption styles multiple particles may be ejected rapidly toward a person, presenting a situation in which dodging one ballistic may put you in the path of another. maximum travel distance, spatial density of impacts) and no advice accompanies the hazard map, though a residents handbook was printed that included examples of what ballistics are and how far they can travel. can cause mass fatalities. d GeoNet website showing monitoring data such as Volcanic Alert Level, seismic drums and visuals of the volcano. Correspondence to At higher levels,where the prevailing winds take over, atmospheric flow is more _________ in direction. and several of the most notorious volcanoes have been designated as Altmetric, Part of the Advances in Volcanology book series (VOLCAN). Accessed Mar 2015, GNS Science (2012) Te Maari Eruption Phenomena. Conversely, renewed volcanic activity, especially when unexpected, urgently demands rapid hazard assessments which may, as a result, be too simplistic, overly conservative or lacking sufficient detail to be considered complete. However, if it had been possible to issue a warning when the precursory activity increased on the day of the 2014 eruption, it is unlikely that it would have resulted in no fatalities. 2012; Wardman et al. These volcanoes have been chosen for their variation in: frequency of eruption (Sakurajima and Yasur frequently erupt, while Upper Te Maari and Mt. Effective ballistic risk assessment requires greater understanding of (a) the distribution of ballistic from a range of potential eruption styles, (b) the impact of ballistics to people and other societal assets (vulnerability/fragility characteristics), and (c) identification and (crucially) evaluation of what are the most appropriate mitigation actions to reduce ballistic risks before, during and after an eruption. Tephra falls skip hugging the slope and go directly to the ground. Mount St. Helens produces small to largeexplosive eruptions, which send varying quantities ofashandtephrainto the atmosphere. c Additional information on volcanic hazards at Tongariro (including ballistics), initially handed out to all hikers, provided on Department of Conservation website. It is not a continuously active volcano with four eruptions (all phreatic) in its historic record (1979, 1991, 2007 and 2014; Japan Meteorological Agency 2013a; Smithsonian Institution 2013). As such they were described on the background hazard map for the volcano (Fig. 2014; Fitzgerald et al. What have you done or what are you doing right now to help save our environment? 0% found this document useful, Mark this document as useful, 0% found this document not useful, Mark this document as not useful, Save Tephra and Ballistic Projectiles For Later, Tbki g vjlcgij krupts et well sjfktefks kakct fgtkregl sucb gs rjc` nrgdfkits eitj tbk, . They have tenperatures above ignition points. Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles - refers to volcanic rock and lava materials that are ejected into the air by explosions or carried upward by the eruption column's hot gases or lava fountains. Ballistics are fragments of lava (bombs) or rock (blocks) ejected in explosive eruptions (Fig. It can easily erode loose volcanic material depsited on the upper slopes of volcano or along the path of a river on its way down the slopes. Hgllestec prjakctelks grk rjc`s tbgt gi krupteid vjlcgij fgy. likelihood of fatality or damage (Nadim 2013). GNS volcanic alert bulletins were also produced, communicating updates on the precursory phenomena observed at Tongariro (Volcanic Alert Bulletins TON-2012/0104; Fig. Ballistic projectiles are a risk to life on active volcanoes and can cause substantial damage to exposed infrastructure and the environment due to their high kinetic energy, mass, and often high temperatures (Blong 1984). Tephra falls and Ballistic Projectiles formed on Land Tephra consists of pyroclastic fragments of any size and origin. - 52.26.228.196. The eruption was largely unexpected with 11min of precursory tremor, and uplift detected only seven minutes before the event (Ui 2015). Fuji on past ballistic distributions from phreatic and magmatic eruptions in Japan and around the world (Mount Fuji Disaster Prevention Council 2004). It can reduce visibility to zero and turn day to night by blocking sunlight. Maps also urge visitors, tourist agencies and communities to seriously consider the information provided prior to ascending Yasur (Vanuatu Geohazards Observatory 2009). 3) depicting the general hazard for all active vent(s) (Neal et al. Studies of these deposits reveal that we should anticipate potential hazards from some phenomena that only occur during eruptions and from others that may occur without eruptive activity. Seismicity declined in the days prior to eruption and thus the TAC remained open to tourists (Jolly et al. Kiso, a town in the Nagano Prefecture responsible for one of the mountain trails, has also installed loudspeakers in the mountain cabins prior to easing restrictions in September 2015 (The Japan Times 27/09/2015). Nat Hazards 24:157169, Paton D, Smith L, Daly M, Johnston D (2008) Risk perception and volcanic hazard mitigation: individual and social perspectives. The only effective method of risk mitigation is evacuation prior to Ballistic projectiles ejected in explosive eruptions present a major proximal hazard to life, infrastructure and the environment. 2007). Public availability may include being posted on signs around the volcanoes entrance(s), in a pamphlet or similar printed media at tourist facilities (e.g. Potential hazards posed by U.S. volcanoes include tephra falls, pyroclastic flows and surges, VOG, ballistic projectiles, lahar and lava flows. Ballistics are not a hazard in isolation. Access Montserrat for an on-going hazards mitigation drama. Int J Environ Health Res 12(2):109123, Cronin SJ, Gaylord DR, Charley D, Alloway BV, Wallez S, Esau JW (2004) Participatory methods of incorporating scientific with traditional knowledge for volcanic hazard management on Ambae Island, Vanuatu. By end of the day, more than 500 million tons of ash had fallen onto parts of Washington, Idaho, and Montana. 2010; Houghton et al. Influences the distribution of tephra falling out of the eruption cloud. R. H. Fitzgerald . the building of ballistic shelters capable of withstanding ballistic impacts or the reinforcement of existing structures to specific building standards, and the choice of location for hiking trails, viewing platforms or other visitor facilities; the creation of well distributed hazard maps with instructional text with what to do or where to go in an event of an eruption; and engagement with the local communities including exercises and evaluation (Fig. Geol Soc, London, Spec Publ 305(1):163177, Baxter P, Gresham A (1997) Deaths and injuries in the eruption of Galeras Volcano, Colombia, 14 January 1993. In: Zschau J, Kuppers AN (eds) Early warning systems for natural disaster reduction. J Volcanol Geoth Res 59(4):269278. The equation that Booth used to calculate risk includes probability of occurrence, indicating that eruption frequency has been examined; however, neither the probability used nor the description of prior eruptive history are provided in the publication. About Press Copyright Contact us Creators Advertise Developers Terms Privacy Policy & Safety How YouTube works Test new features Press Copyright Contact us Creators . United States Geological Survey Open File Report 00-519, Plate1, NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation) (2015). Any evacuation warning prior to an event would need to occur at least an hour before the event and be immediately transmitted to all hikers on the summit area as it takes over an hour for hikers to move out of the ballistic hazard zone. View three different computer-generated ash-cloud simulations. 2004; Williams and Keys 2013). We wish to thank Bill McGuire and an anonymous reviewer for their thorough and constructive reviews. Multiple factors contributed to the high fatality rate: The eruption happened in peak season when ~340 people were on the mountain. Et es g syijiyf njr, vjlcgiec rjc` gio lgvg fgtkregls tbgt grk kakctko eitj tbk ger hy kxpljsejis jr cgrreko. Volcanic ballistics are fragments of lava and rock - ranging in size from a few centimetres to tens of metres in diameter - expelled by explosive eruptions at temperatures reaching over 1000 C. Sakurajima is constantly monitored by the Sakurajima Volcano Observatory and is considered to be one of the best monitored volcanoes in Japan (GSJ 2013). When activity changes, alert levels are posted on the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) website for the public to view. Earthscan, London, pp 220231, Small C, Naumann T (2001) The global distribution of human population and recent volcanism. Accessed Feb 2015, GNS Science (2007) Volcanic hazards at Tongariro. Pyroclastic flows and surges are potentially highly destructive owing to their mass, high temperature, high velocity 2010). J Appl Volcanol 4:12, Drabek TE (1995) Disaster responses within the tourist industry. 7x43x+17 x^{4}-3 x+17x43x+1. Many volcanoes are tourist destinations with associated tourist facilities such as ski fields, accommodation and walking tracks (Erfurt-Cooper 2011). Ei cjitrgst, tbec`, cjgrsk-drgeiko okpjsets cljsko tj tbk sjurck cgi. RHF is also supported by a doctoral scholarship from the Ngi Tahu Research Centre. It may not be needed or appropriate for the methods to be presented to the stakeholders in depth but instead it be communicated that they are available if requested. and great mobility. Ballistic projectiles are considered a common adverse hazard within 10 km of the event but are not even considered beyond that, whereas tephra fallout is a very frequent hazard under 10 km and is still a common hazard at 100-500 km distance from the event. J Volcanol Geoth Res 286:184207, Kagoshima City (2010) Sakurajima Volcano hazard map. http://info.geonet.org.nz/download/attachments/8585571/Northern_Tongariro_eruption_phenomena.pdf. Coombs et al. The publics response to volcanic hazard communication is influenced by the content and attractiveness of the message (which should include a description of the hazard, its impacts, hazard extent, and advice on what to do and when), how comprehensible it is, and the frequency and number of channels the message is received from, as well as the extent of public belief that safety actions are possible and will be effective (Leonard et al. http://info.geonet.org.nz/download/attachments/8585571/Tongariro_Poster_A4.pdf. Densities vary greatly, from that of pumice (<0.5)) to solid pieces of lava with density about 3.0. In collaboration with researchers from the USGS Volcano Hazards Program, the Hazards Vulnerability Team worked on better understanding and communicating. In: Self S, Sparks RSJ (ed) Tephra studies, proceedings NATO Advanced Studies Institute, Laugarvatn and Reykjavik, 1829 June 1980, pp 405420, Blong RJ (1984) Volcanic hazards: a sourcebook on the effects of eruptions. Bull Volcanol 46(4):333348, Swanson DA, Zolkos SP, Haravitch B (2012) Ballistic blocks around Klauea Caldera: Their vent locations and number of eruptions in the late 18th century. 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive Reston, VA 20192. The event-specific hazard maps are generally shared around the various media outlets (e.g., television, radio, newspapers, Facebook, Twitter) to inform the public of the updated hazard, as well as through the usual means of communication. The hydrothermal eruption produced multiple pyroclastic surges, an ~8km high ash plume and ejected thousands of ballistic blocks (Fitzgerald et al. How Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles Are Dispersed or Hazard Zoning. J Volcanol Geoth Res 100(14):479502, Tsunematsu K, Ishimine Y, Kaneko T, Yoshimoto M, Fujii T, Yamaoka K (2016) Estimation of ballistic block landing energy during 2014 Mount Ontake eruption. We note many of these issues transcend volcanic ballistics to include nearly all volcano types and volcanic hazards: What is the most effective way to manage and communicate risk from volcanoes which are (highly) visited and/or settled which experience eruptions with very short and/or no meaningful warnings (e.g. Ballistic hazards lend themselves to this type of community engagement because many open system volcanoes that may be constantly erupting but not considered to be in a state of volcanic crisis (e.g. While the extent of theseashlayers is widespread, minor eruptions of ash from any Cascade Range volcano can cause serious societal disruptions. Ballistics are fragments of lava (bombs) or rock (blocks) ejected in explosive eruptions (Fig. 5e). For ballistics, impacts may be death or injury; impact locations are usually within 5km of the vent; and advice may include if ballistics are landing around you, move out of their oncoming path, seek shelter and make yourself a small target. Advice on actions to be taken may vary at different volcanoes, although it would be beneficial if messages are consistent across all volcanoes to reinforce actions and increase the likelihood of people following the correct actions. Precursory activity only increased 11min prior to eruption, resulting in an unexpected eruption. 2012; Wardman et al. (2016) and delineated into four zones. You can use _________ to create an empty dictionary. Fallout is another generic term for ash and tephra that falls to the Earth surface from an eruption cloud. Effective risk management is built on communication, hazard education and engagement with the at-risk communities (Johnston et al. level 5 with evacuate). This report (1) explains the various types of hazardous geologic phenomena that could occur at Mount Rainier, (2 . 2008; Bertolaso et al. t0=gh4d. Tongariro, New Zealand. 2014), making it difficult to deterministically forecast future ballistic distributions. electic-generating plants, pumping stations, storm sewers and Mt. However, ballistic hazard and risk are not and should not be treated the same at all volcanoes. by (1) the force of impact of falling fragments, but this occurs only The 27 September 2014 phreatic eruption occurred at lunchtime on a busy autumn day when ~340 hikers were on the mountain (Tsunematsu et al. J Volcanol Geoth Res 286:331347, Jolly GE, Keys HJR, Procter JN, Deligne NI (2014b) Overview of the co-ordinated risk-based approach to science and management response and recovery for the 2012 eruptions of Tongariro volcano, New Zealand. Geology 39(3):263266, Japan Meteorological Agency (2013a) 53 Ontakesan. Burial by tephra can collapse roofs of buildings, break power and This was a much shorter period of precursory activity than previous eruptions. 2007; Thompson et al. 2008; Bird et al. c. fibrin. 3b). How far projectiles go from the vent partly depends on the size of ejected fragments. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Over 10 million scientific documents at your fingertips, Not logged in Once these steps are complete, we then suggest that a ballistic risk assessment is undertaken to help underpin effective management and communication of ballistic hazard and risk. Accessed 28 Oct 2014, The Japan Times 27/9/2015. Academic Press, Orlando, Blong RJ (1996) Volcanic hazards risk assessment. Tephra. Earth, Planets Space 68:79, Pardo N, Cronin SJ, Nmeth K, Brenna M, Schipper CI, Breard E, White JDL, Procter J, Stewart B, Agustin-Flores J, Moebis A, Zernack A, Kereszturi G, Lube G, Auer A, Wallace C (2014) Perils in distinguishing phreatic from phreatomagmatic ash; insights into the eruption mechanisms of the 6 August 2012 Mt. The maximum travel distance of ballistic projectiles from each scenario (based on field and model distributions) is then used to define the extent of the hazard zones. Lahar volume 2008; Bird et al. A hazard map is displayed at the carpark before the ascent up the cone, highlighting the 1999 lava bomb impact zone and the observation location for each volcanic alert levelas the alert level increases so does the distance of the observation position from the cone (i.e. restriction zones are emplaced). Int J Mass Emerg Disasters 13(1):723, Eissen JP, Blot C, Louat R (1991) Chronologie de lactivit volcanique historique de larc insulaire des Nouvelles-Hbrides de 1595 1991. Fatalities also occurred in exposed areas where there were no buildings in sight to shelter within. In: Slovic P (ed) The perception of risk. In response the Volcanic Alert Level was raised from 0 to 1 (indicating unrest). They may be augmented by specific life safety signage (e.g. Geotimes, American Geological Institute. 2013; Breard et al. Pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) and lava flows are not included in a hazard zone but are mentioned as a possibility in all valleys. J Volcanol Geoth Res 231232:111, The Japan News 26/10/2014. Ballistic projectiles are the most frequently lethal volcanic hazard close to the vent. Potential hazards posed by U.S. volcanoes include tephra falls, pyroclastic flows and surges, VOG, ballistic projectiles, lahar and lava flows. Falling volcanic ash can disrupt lives distant from an erupting volcano. The term tephra defines all pieces of all fragments of rock ejected into the air by an erupting volcano. Ontake: eyewitnesses or eruption. It is the process wherein wet cement-like mixture of volcanic material and water flows down the slopes of volcano. (<2mm) Coarser lapilli. 1d) are also common occurrences from ballistics during explosive eruptions. National Catalogue of the active volcanoes in Japan (4th edn). Map design should also take into account the effect of map properties on communication (understanding/comprehension) such asdata classification, basemap or image, colour scheme(e.g. This study, however, focussed only on the vulnerability of the built environment and did not include an overall assessment of hazard or risk. 2013; Kaneko et al. If the August 2012 eruption had occurred in peak tourist season, then a similar amount of fatalities as Ontake potentially could have occurred. Communication delivered jointly by scientists and the local community is also advisable as community members may be better trusted and better communicators to their community than scientists in isolation. 1999, 2000; Paton et al. Official websites use .gov On the 6th August 2012, Upper Te Maari Crater, one of the many vents on Tongariro volcano, New Zealand, erupted for the first time in over 100years (Scott and Potter 2014). What are Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles? If your intended use exceeds what is permitted by the license or if 3). 2016) and August 2012 Te Maari eruptions (Breard et al. {} This is a critical issue for managing ballistic risk, as eruptions with longer unrest phases typically allow evacuation of ballistic hazard zones before the eruption. Volcanic explosions can propel rock fragments on ballistic trajectories that may differ from the wind direction. communication lines and damage or kill vegetation. The map, published in 2007, consists of a summit hazard zone around each active vent, encompassing gas and ballistics at radii of 23km for different vents based on experience of ballistic ranges in past eruptions at Tongariro National Park. Hazard and risk assessments are useful starting points for all communication and management strategies as the nature, extent and consequences of the hazard need to be understood prior to any decisions being made.

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